Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Future Alcohol Outcomes: Examining the Roles of Coping and Enhancement Drinking Motives among Young Men

Adult ADHD symptoms. Adult ADHD symptoms over the past 12 months were assessed at baseline with the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale Screener (ASRS-v1.1; Kessler et al., 2007). The ASRS-v1.1 is a six-item scale that measures six ADHD symptoms based on DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for ADHD (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Participants indicated how often they experienced each symptom over the past 12 months with a Likert-scale ranging from 0 to 4. The ASRS-v1.1 includes a 4-item inattention subscale (e.g., How often do you have problems remembering appointments or obligations) and a 2-item hyperactivity/impulsivity subscale (e.g., How often do you feel overly active and compelled to do things, like you were driven by a motor; Hesse, 2013).

Drinking motives. Coping and enhancement drinking motives were measured at 15 months with two 3-item subscales of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire Revised Short Form (DMQ-R SF; Kuntsche & Kuntsche, 2009). Participants were asked to consider all the time they had consumed alcohol in the past year and indicate how often they did so for coping (e.g., to forget about your problems) or enhancement (e.g., to get high) motives, using a 5-point Likert scale.

Alcohol outcomes. AUD symptoms following DSM-5 diagnostic criteria were measured with 11 items adapted from the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism (SSAGA; Bucholz et al., 1994; Hesselbrock, Easton, Bucholz, Schuckit, & Hesselbrock, 1999). Participants were asked to indicate whether they had experienced any of 11 situations corresponding to AUD symptoms over the past 12 months (e.g., you often found yourself drinking more and for longer periods of time than you intended). Participants were also asked to indicate how often they drank six or more alcoholic beverages (≥ 60gr of pure alcohol) on one occasion in the past 12 months with a Likert scale ranging from 0 to 5. Answers were dichotomized to yield a report of monthly HED, where 0 = reporting less than 1 HED per month and, 1 = reporting one or more HED per month.

Depression symptoms. Depression symptoms were assessed at baseline with the Major Depression Inventory (MDI; Bech, Rasmussen, Olsen, Noerholm, & Abildgaard, 2001), which is a 10-item scale covering the ICD-10 symptoms of depression such as feeling lacking in energy and strength (World Health Organization, 1994). Participants were asked to indicate how often they had experienced each symptom over the past 2 weeks using a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 5. Answers were summed up to yield a total score (depression symptoms).

Anti-social personality disorder symptoms. The Mini International Neuropsychiatric interview (MINI plus; Lecrubier et al., 1998) was used to assess anti-social personality disorder (ASPD) symptoms. Participants were required to indicate how often they had engaged in 12 behaviors—six before they were 15 years old (e.g., Before you were 15 years old, how often did you start fights or bully, threaten, or intimidate others?) and in six others since they were 15 (e.g., Since you were 15 years old, how often have you exposed others to danger without caring?)—using a 6-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 to 6. Answers were summed up to yield a total score (ASPD symptoms).